More Esprit de corps thoughts
My earlier musing on esprit de corps were driven by another essay demand. I'd selected, from the options, to write on esprit de corps as I have strong feelings on the topic. However, strong feelings didn't tranform themselves into a 4000 word essay as fluently as I'd hoped. Another valuable lesson learnt- I just wish it wasn't just mistakes I'm learning from!
Anyway, here it is:
How important was regimental esprit de corps to the morale of the BEF?
By linking together the individuals who made up the BEF into one group with common aims and values, regimental esprit de corps was a critical factor in maintaining the morale of the BEF.
Warfare is a collective endeavour. The day of individual heroic warriors meeting in single combat has long been replaced by the actions of groups of belligerents. These groups fight with an aim which is almost always victory. Anything which binds together the individuals to make the group more cohesive, that places the group’s needs in a position of primacy over that of the individual, is desirable and enhances the group’s martial nature. Many factors can achieve this, such as belief in a religious or shared cause, but an essential ingredient is high morale. Morale could be developed or destroyed in many ways but becomes exceptionally strong when fed by esprit de corps. This is especially effective when present at a small group, such as regimental, level.
Defining esprit de corps is a difficult task, one modern definition is:
“the spirit of fellowship, loyalty, and common purpose that unities the members of a group.”[1]
It would however be useful to find a definition in use by the soldiers of the day. In a pamphlet on Leadership, Esprit de Corps and Morale written in 1915 by the Commandant of the Third Army School
“Esprit de corps is the feeling that prompts every man never to think of himself as an individual, but of the unit to which he belongs,”[2]
It’s likely the French nature of the phrase is why M. Bazillion was deemed suitably qualified to comment, but esprit de corps is not a solely military preserve. The growth of social networking websites is a modern indicator of the urge to belong and the grouping instinct of mankind. This is not a new phenomenon. An article in the 1868 Chambers journal, wrongly describing it as a solely English characteristic, notes the often transient but essentially easy nature of human bonding.
“It seems to be a peculiarity of Englishmen to identify themselves thoroughly with any institution to which they may even be temporarily attached. If merely going up the river in a penny steamer, they cannot bear “our boat” to be outstripped by any other, and no more like the craft to be beaten than if they were personally responsible for its speed.”[3]
Most human beings have an inbuilt, subconscious need to belong, or at least feel they belong to the bigger group. In a theory of psychology familiar to generations of teachers, Abraham Maslow identified a hierarchy of needs. Amongst the most basic of these are social needs, one of the essential foundations or “deficiency needs” required for personal growth. These social needs include the need for friendship, intimacy and the acceptance of the family or community and are a basic requirement for the individual’s comfort and happiness. Maslow’s research can be questioned due to his selective methods and possible changes in society by the time of his work in the 1940s, but the primal need for a sense of belonging was present in society at the beginning of the 20th century in a way which is somewhat absent today. Implicit in this need for belonging is an accompanying desire to avoid exhibiting any difference from the accepted norm. An individual’s behaviour was being constantly measured against that of the group, any perceived infringement bringing some form of repercussion.
Being displaced, physically or emotionally, from this communal lifestyle could lead to loneliness and depression, the swift adoption of a surrogate community or family would prevent this. This powerful double need, to belong and not be outside of the group, was a factor exploited in recruitment campaigns and by the military and government in its management of civilians, including those temporarily in uniform, throughout the war.
The British nation was mobilised during the First World War as never before, the army itself being drawn from a much wider element of society than previously. Many new recruits were working class and from urban backgrounds, they brought with them an instinctive coping strategy of forming together into groups, which would now be described as primary or buddy groups. The Friendly society, trade union or church community of civilian life was partially substituted by the regimental family and it’s esprit de corps. Direct appeals to this grouping instinct were made through the formation of “pals” battalions. In a synchronous relationship, these played upon the sentiments of the individual not to be left out, but displayed the wish of the community to play its part in the national effort. The central policy of “join together and serve together” with people from similar backgrounds, was successfully in encouraging men from outside the army’s traditional recruiting pool to enlist. The resulting geographically focused pain of casualties and its effect on civilian morale lead to changes in this policy, but it’s simple attraction saw it briefly return during a recruiting crisis in the 1990s.
By re-establishing the primary group, now around military formations, it made the adoption of military values easier and more informal. This could prevent or at least reduce any friction during this transition from civilian to soldier which might erode morale. As the army lost its volunteer nature with the introduction of compulsion, esprit de corps became an essential rallying point in bringing together the diverse range of recruits and providing and maintaining common values and purpose.
For military purposes esprit de corps works to maintain morale as it promotes the group over the individual. This will make the group more effective, thereby becoming more successfully which in turn leads to higher morale, this circular pattern potentially becoming self generating. A perfectly reasonable reaction for an infantryman on his platoon coming under fire would be to take cover, thereby making himself safe, but militarily ineffective. For the group to achieve its aims the individual soldiers must stick to the task and fulfil their expected roles despite risks to themselves. A sentry’s individual needs would suggest getting into shelter from the wind and rain, but his responsibility towards the group requires him to stay at his post. The military disciplinary system would be linked into compelling the soldier in the above examples, but this was very much the stick to esprit de corps’ carrot. The togetherness of army life and the complete reliance on each other was repeatedly emphasised, the soldier being left in no doubt that despite the increasingly industrial nature of the war they were an essential element within the primary group.
The application of discipline was often manipulated to “keep matters in house”, while still maintaining standards. This protective role of the regimental officer was another aspect of esprit de corps. The regimental conduct sheet of Private Pike, a pre war regular of the 2nd Battalion Grenadier Guards demonstrates the flexibility applied. Amongst several charges for minor misdemeanours, Pike is charged with sleeping in the trenches whilst on sentry. During the war this charge lead to 449 courts martial, with two executions.[4] Pike instead received a period of Field Punishment No 1, a regimentally applied punishment. Pike was to later receive a similar punishment for not saluting the Commanding Officer of the Irish Guards something which evidently stirred the presiding officer’s own esprit de corps. Despite this and other crimes he can still be seen in a photograph taken in 1919 displaying his good conduct stripes.[5]
The massive, diverse British Army of the First World War couldn’t be controlled by threats alone. Training, ethos and culture all promoted the idea of the group’s needs over the individuals. In the training pamphlet aimed at platoon commanders, SS143 Instruction for Training Platoons of Offensive Action 1917, as well as setting out contact drills for the various attacks the reader is reminded of their role in esprit de corps. The explicit encouragement and practical advice on building and maintaining esprit de corps and its link to morale, are supported by the army’s formal acceptance into its doctrine. [6]
The military have always been (and still are) acutely aware of the supportive value to morale of esprit de corps. The British Army’s regimental system binds the soldier with the doings of their predecessors. Eccentricities and traditions are fiercely protected as day to day reminders of the regiment’s standards. The individual soldier is left in no doubt of their part in this regimental family, and as with the real family the individual is expected to fulfil their role and meet the accepted standards. As the changing nature of the battlefield made scarlet tunics and tall hats redundant, the iconography of cap badges, names and mottos were being carefully maintained. The design of cap badges is invariably designed to remind the viewer or wearer of the past achievements and perceived standards of the group. No soldier would believe his regiment is anything but the best, drawing strength and motivation from the higher morale brought by this knowledge.
The Third Army instructional manual quoted earlier was printed with a selection of maxims of Field Marshal Viscount Wolseley as its first chapter.
“The soldier is a peculiar animal that can alone be brought to the highest efficiency by inducing him to believe that he belongs to a regiment which is infinitely superior to the others round him.”[7] (emphasis in original)
For units with no history, such as service battalions or new formations it was necessary to develop this pride. In some such as the Machine Gun Corps this could be in their unique nature or even a perverse pride in the hazardous nature of their duties, evidenced by the numerous “suicide clubs”. Others such as war raised battalions sometimes bolstered themselves by adoption of affiliated cap badge esprit de corps.
The constant work of building and maintaining morale and esprit de corps was a prime concern of regimental officers. War diaries, histories and memoirs all frequently record the victories of the unit. Often these are sporting and relatively bloodless in nature. Keeping troops fit needed activity but the repeated inter unit sports were aimed more at building esprit de corps and morale.
This pride in the regiment can have a down side. “Cap badge rivalry” has lead to, or at least been the post event justification for, countless fights but more importantly it has also been implicated in allowing a potential bias in command appointments across the army. The generally unfounded accusations levelled against Douglas Haig of favouring cavalry men in his appointments, still find their modern equivalents in the number of Light Infantrymen or Paratroopers in higher command.
Recruiting Sergeants, old men and politicians may talk of serving King and Country but most servicemen will talk of not wanting to let their mates down. This communal spirit was more common place in the society of the early 20th century but the Armed forces would carefully promote the primacy of the immediate grouping, or buddy group, over the individual. The buddy group can be extended depending on the scale being compared. A soldier will, if the system works, know his section is the best section in the platoon, but will be equally convinced that his platoon is the best in the company and so on. George Coppard, a machine gunner in the 12th (Eastern) Division describes both his pride in the Machine Gun Corps but also his joy at meeting another member of the division living near him post war.[8]
Esprit de corps may also have had a protective effect on the morale of individual soldiers. By focusing the horizon on the immediate buddy group the death and destruction of those outside the group could became less important, this insulating effect could protect against the natural erosion of morale caused by exposure to this alien environment. This split into “them” and “us” would allow for a Janusian way of judging events, the theft of items from “others” being acceptable, but not from those within the primary group; a soldier could express relief if other units received the attentions of the enemy or were assigned a particular onerous task.
J C Fuller during a post war lecture to the Royal United Services Institute linked patriotism into his definition, if patriotism is the spirit of a nation:
“what patriotism is to your country so is Esprit de Corps to your regiment.”[9]
This is useful as it points to the hierocracy nature of esprit de corps.
Starting at the lowest level, be it a section or artillery piece, unit pride would build to battalion level, or brigade in the artillery’s case. This level of day to day interaction was the most frequent and therefore the strongest, leading to a collective sense of purpose described by one author as “esprit de battalion”.[10] The nature of warfare, on the western front particularly, allowed this to spread to brigade level and then to division. The division was probably the highest formation that could truly be said to exhibit esprit de corps. This was enhanced in some cases by the geographic formation of the divisions but was founded on the bonds of continued shared experiences, the common icons of identification and the leadership of an identifiable figure brought a sense of a united purpose. Later writing on the different levels of command, Field Marshal Sir William Slim described the division as one of the best commands as:
“it’s the smallest formation that is a complete orchestra of war and the largest in which every man can know you.”[11]
For the civilian now finding themselves in the army, having a recognisable, if unapproachable figure head made for a more familiar structure. Whether liked or disliked, either could have positive binding effects for esprit de corps, the divisional commander was an individual for the group to orientate themselves off.
By allowing and actively encouraging this tribal grouping potential problems were introduced. Many accounts identify the unhappy experiences of men who were adjudged to be outsiders. The war diary of the Fifeshire Heavy Battery, Royal Garrison Artillery, cheerfully recounts the expulsion of a number of reinforcements due to their Englishness.[12] By 1917 recruitment problems had lead to the Irish divisions receiving large drafts of English soldiers with very mixed receptions.[13]
The regimental esprit de corps was often able to overcome the territorial bonds, many accounts of regimental life identify a “lost” cockney or Welshman integrated successfully within a proud county regiment.
The regimental bonds which are ascribed to esprit de corps were reinforced by the paternal nature of officer/man relationships. Immediate concerns such as food, leave, medical care and news from home directly affected morale, but the solution of these came from within the regimental system. Huge efforts were made within the army to service these needs, generally with great success. Many servicemen received a better diet whilst on active service in Flanders
If the regimental system of esprit de corps was a tool by which the British Army commanders aimed to maintain morale, then the amalgamation and disbandment of battalions in early 1918 rode roughshod over this work. Men found themselves swiftly transferred, if lucky into another battalion of the same regiment. The 10th Essex
Across the army this experience was repeated and the perceived disregard for regimental esprit de corps affected the morale of many. The silver lining of this particularly dark cloud was apparent in some units concerned about the contamination of their identity:
“The failure of recruiting in Ireland had rendered it impossible to maintain all the Irish battalions at full strength, and very wisely the authorities decided so far as possible to amalgamate existing Irish formations instead of endeavouring to keep them alive by watering them down with alien stock”.[15]
But it was an exceptionally hopeful commentator who noted that:
“This system of allowing the Regular Irish battalions to absorb their service ones had the outstanding merit that national and regimental “esprit de corps” were preserved.”[16]
The emotional connection to regimental names is linked into the pride in that regiment’s achievements. Service battalions often proudly adopted the history of their affiliated regiments as did battalions of the Territorial Force’s London London London
It is significant that the only major breakdown in discipline within the BEF was linked to an environment which produced low morale without the protection of esprit de corps. The institutional bullying at Etaples was designed to erode the morale of the individual soldiers in a method reminiscent of recruit training. The soldiers passing through, often returning after wounds, found the experience demeaning whilst it’s transient nature did not offer the comforts of the group and it’s esprit de corps. Most troops present at the mutiny returned to their units without spreading discontent throughout the Army.
Once successfully instilled, esprit de corps becomes difficult to lose. Its power can still be felt after the obvious bonds had been broken. Soldiers returning form periods of sickness or wounds wished to return to their units. Even once out of the Army, esprit de corps continued to work.
The continuing force of regimental esprit de corps can be seen in the number of Old Comrades associations which have in many cases outlived the regiment and the servicemen.[17]Whilst some servicemen turned their back on all related to the war, many missed the comradeship of their service years. The effects of their service placed them outside of, or at least on the very edges of, the civilian group to which they originally belonged. The esprit de corps which had made the situation remotely bearable was now absent. The old comrades associations provided a sanctuary if needed or a place to relive “with advantages” their exploits. Others finding it impossible to discuss their experiences sought the company of those that would understand. The nature of Remembrance Day was very different whilst large numbers of veterans were actively involved, many found this an ideal opportunity to re-establish the bonds forged in adversity in a celebration of life not death. This bond is well described by the authors of the 10th Essex
“Within the individual experience there is something for which the memory of the 10th Essex
After the war many servicemen committed their experiences to paper, some with a view to being published, others to provide a simple record. An example of the former would be Robert Grave’s Goodbye to all that which frequently shows Grave’s pride in his parent regiment and whilst occasionally erring towards fiction, lividly highlights regimental rivalries. John Jackson’s Private 12768 Memoir of a Tommy gives a volunteers view of the war, but closes with:
“It is now the year 1926 and almost twelve years since I set off on my life’s “Great Adventure”, and if there is one thing above others that I am proud of, then surely it was the happy choice that placed me in the ranks of the “The Queen’s Own Cameron Highlanders”, whose record in battle is second to none, and as a regiment are well worthy of their famous motto:
Whatever Men Dare, They Can Do!![19]
The two authors are both connect by the element of chance that placed them in their regiment and the enduring sense of esprit de corps which it obviously left them with. Amongst the various dramatic elements which most authors felt worthy of recording, or in Graves
Bibliography
Astill, Edwin (editor) The Great War Diaries of Brigadier General Alexander Johnston 1914-1917 ( Barnsley
Banks + Chell, With the 10th Essex in France London
Bowman, Timothy Irish Regiments in the Great War (Manchester 2003)
Carrington, C. Soldier from the Wars Returning ( Barnsley
Coppard, George With a Machine Gun to Cambrai, (London, HMSO 1969)
Dolden, A. Stuart Cannon Fodder ( London
Gillon, Captain Stair, The Story of the 29th Division (Naval and Military Press reprint 2002)
Graves, Robert Goodbye to all that ( London
Jackson, John Private 12768:Memoir of a Tommy (Tempus, Stroud 2004)
Messenger, Charles Call to arms the British army 1914-18, (Weidenfield & Nicholson, London 2005)
Nichols G H F The 18th Division in the Great War (Naval and Military Press reprint 2004)
Scott, Major-General Sir Arthur B, The History of the 12th (Eastern) Division (Naval and Military Press reprint 2002)
Slim, Field Marshal Sir William, Defeat into Victory, (Cassel, London 1956)
Terraine, J. General Jack’s diary ( London
SS 143 Instructions for the Training of Platoons for Offensive Action February 1917
SS 143 Instructions for the Training of Platoons for Offensive Action February 1918
Third Army Pamphlet Addresses on Leadership, Esprit De Corps and Morale
Royal United Services Institute Journal
[1] The Penguin English Dictionary 2001
[2] Lieut-Col R J Kentish DSO , Addresses on Leadership, Esprit de Corps and Moral Third Army School
[3] Chambers journal of Popular Literature, Science and Art, No. 260 December 1868 page 1
[4] Messenger, Charles, Call to arms The British army 1914-18 (Weidenfield and Nicholson, London 2005) page 377
[5] The National Archives (TNA):Public Record Office (PRO) WO 363 for Pike’s service record, photograph in author’s collection
[6] SS 143 Instructions for the Training of Platoons for Offensive Action (War Office, February 1917)
[7] Lieut-Col R J Kentish DSO , Addresses on Leadership, Esprit de Corps and Moral Third Army School
[8] Coppard, George With a Machine Gun to Cambrai, ( London
[9] Lecture published in Royal United Services Institute Journal no. 65 February/November 1920
[10] Banks + Chell, With the 10th Essex in France, ( London
[11] Slim, Field Marshal Sir William, Defeat into Victory, (Cassel, London 1956) page 3
[12] The National Archives (TNA):Public Record Office (PRO) W0 95/478 June 1917
[13] Bowman, Timothy, Irish Regiments in the Great War, page 143. The 15th + 16th Royal Irish Regiment seemed to have found this particularly difficult.
[14] The disbanded battalions were: 8th Norfolks, 8th Suffolks + 6th Royal Berkshires
[15] Bowman, Timothy, Irish Regiments in the Great War page 152
[16] Bowman, Timothy, Irish Regiments in the Great War page 152
[17] The Machine Gun Corps still has a regimental association
[18] Banks + Chell, With the 10th Essex in France page 332
[19] Jackson, John Private 12768:Memoir of a Tommy (Tempus, Stroud 2004) Page 215
[20] Dolden, A. Stuart Cannon fodder ( London
Comments